.. _dos:

=================
Density of states
=================

The density of states is defined by

.. math::

  \rho(\varepsilon) = \sum_n \langle\psi_n|\psi_n\rangle
  \delta(\varepsilon-\varepsilon_n),

where `\varepsilon_n` is the eigenvalue of the eigenstate `|\psi_n\rangle`.

Inserting a complete orthonormal basis, this can be rewritten as

.. math::

  \begin{array}{rlrl} \rho(\varepsilon) &= \sum_i \rho_i(\varepsilon)
  ,& \rho_i(\varepsilon) &= \sum_n \langle \psi_n | i \rangle \langle i
  | \psi_n \rangle \delta(\varepsilon - \varepsilon_n)\\
  \rho(\varepsilon) &= \int\!\mathrm{d}r \rho(r, \varepsilon),&
  \rho(r, \varepsilon) &= \sum_n \langle\psi_n | r \rangle \langle r |
  \psi_n \rangle \delta(\varepsilon - \varepsilon_n) \end{array}

using that `1 = \sum_i | i \rangle\langle i |` and `1 =
\int\!\mathrm{d}r |r\rangle\langle r|`.

`\rho_i(\varepsilon)` is called the projected density of states
(PDOS), and `\rho(r, \varepsilon)` the local density of states (LDOS).

Notice that an energy integrating of the LDOS multiplied by a Fermi
distribution gives the electron density

.. math::

  \int\!\mathrm{d}\varepsilon\, n_F(\varepsilon) \rho(r, \varepsilon) = n(r)

Summing the PDOS over `i` gives the spectral weight of orbital `i`.

A GPAW calculator gives access to four different kinds of projected
density of states:

* Total density of states.
* Molecular orbital projected density of states.
* Atomic orbital projected density of states.
* Wigner-Seitz local density of states.

Each of which are described in the following sections.


---------
Total DOS
---------

The total density of states can be obtained by the GPAW calculator
method ``get_dos(spin=0, npts=201, width=None)``. Take a look at the 
:git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/dos.py` program and try to
get a rough idea of what it can do for you.  Use it to plot the
density of states (DOS) for :ref:`bulk fcc aluminium <aluminium_exercise>`
(on the *x*-axis you have the energy relative to the Fermilevel).


----------------------
Molecular Orbital PDOS
----------------------

As shown in the section `Density Of States`_, the construction of the
PDOS requires the projection of the Kohn-Sham eigenstates
`|\psi_n\rangle` onto a set of orthonormal states `|\psi_{\bar n}\rangle`.

.. math::

  \rho_{\bar n}(\varepsilon) = \sum_n | \langle \psi_{\bar n} | \psi_n \rangle
  |^2 \delta(\varepsilon - \varepsilon_n)

The all electron overlaps `\langle \psi_{\bar n}|\psi_n\rangle` can be
calculated within the PAW formalism from the pseudo wave functions
`|\tilde\psi\rangle` and their projector overlaps by [#Blo94]_:

.. math::

  \langle \psi_{\bar n} | \psi_n\rangle = \langle \tilde \psi_{\bar n}
  | \tilde \psi_n \rangle + \sum_a \sum_{i_1i_2} \langle \tilde
  \psi_{\bar n} | \tilde p_{i_1}^a \rangle \Delta S^a_{i_1i_2}
  P^a_{ni_2},

where `\Delta S^a_{i_1i_2} = \langle\phi_{i_1}^a|\phi_{i_2}^a\rangle -
\langle\tilde\phi_{i_1}^a|\tilde\phi_{i_2}^a\rangle` is the overlap metric,
`\phi_i^a(r)`, `\tilde \phi_i^a(r)`, and `\tilde p^a_i(r)` are the
partial waves, pseudo partial waves and projector functions of atom
`a` respectively, and `P^a_{ni} = \langle \tilde p_i^a|\tilde\psi_n\rangle`.

If one chooses the states `|\psi_{\bar n}\rangle` as eigenstates of a
different reference Kohn-Sham system, with the projector overlaps
`\bar P_{\bar n i}^a`, the PDOS relative to these states can simply be
calculated by

.. math::

  \langle \psi_{\bar n} | \psi_n\rangle = \langle \tilde \psi_{\bar n}
  | \tilde \psi_n \rangle + \sum_a \sum_{i_1i_2} \bar P_{\bar n
  i_1}^{a*} \Delta S^a_{i_1i_2} P^a_{ni_2}.

The example below calculates the density of states for CO adsorbed on
a Pt(111) slab and the density of states projected onto the gas phase
orbitals of CO. The ``.gpw`` files can be generated with the script
:git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/top.py`

PDOS script (:git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/pdos.py`):

.. literalinclude:: pdos.py

.. image:: pdos.png

When running the script `\int d\varepsilon\rho_i(\varepsilon)` is
printed for each spin and k-point. The value should be close to one if
the orbital `\psi_i(r)` is well represented by an expansion in
Kohn-Sham orbitals and thus the integral is a measure of the
completeness of the Kohn-Sham system. The bands 7 and 8 are
delocalized and are not well represented by an expansion in the slab
eigenstates (Try changing ``range(2,7)`` to ``range(2,9)`` and note
the integral is less than one).

The function ``calc.get_all_electron_ldos()`` calculates the square
modulus of the overlaps and multiply by normalized gaussians of a
certain width.  The energies are in ``eV`` and relative to the average
potential. Setting the keyword ``raw=True`` will return only the
overlaps and energies in Hartree. It is useful to simply save these in
a ``.pickle`` file since the ``.gpw`` files with wave functions can be
quite large. The following script pickles the overlaps

Pickle script (:git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/p1.py`):

.. literalinclude:: p1.py

Plot PDOS (:git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/p2.py`):

.. literalinclude:: p2.py

.. [#Blo94] P. E. Blöchl, Phys. Rev. B 50, 17953 (1994)


-------------------
Atomic Orbital PDOS
-------------------

If one chooses to project onto the all electron partial waves
(i.e. the wave functions of the isolated atoms) `\phi_i^a`, we see
directly from the expression of section `Molecular Orbital PDOS`_, that
the relevant overlaps within the PAW formalism is

.. math::

  \langle \phi^a_i | \psi_n\rangle = \langle \tilde \phi^a_i
  | \tilde \psi_n \rangle + \sum_{a'} \sum_{i_1i_2} \langle \tilde
  \phi^a_i | \tilde p_{i_1}^{a'} \rangle \Big(\langle \phi_{i_1}^{a'} |
  \phi_{i_2}^{a'} \rangle - \langle \tilde \phi_{i_1}^{a'} | \tilde
  \phi_{i_2}^{a'}\rangle \Big)\langle \tilde p^{a'}_{i_2} | \tilde
  \psi_n \rangle

Using that projectors and pseudo partial waves form a complete basis
within the augmentation spheres, this can be re-expressed as

.. math::

  \langle \phi^a_i | \psi_n \rangle = P^a_{ni} + \sum_{a' \neq a} \sum_{i_1i_2}
  \langle \tilde \phi^a_i | \tilde p^{a'}_{i_1} \rangle \Delta S^{a'}_{i_1i_2}
  P^{a'}_{ni_2}

if the chosen orbital index `i` correspond to a bound state, the
overlaps `\langle \tilde \phi^a_i | \tilde p^{a'}_{i_1} \rangle`,
`a'\neq a` will be small, and we see that we can approximate

.. math::

  \langle \phi^a_i | \psi_n \rangle \approx
  \langle \tilde p_i^a | \tilde \psi_n \rangle

We thus define an atomic orbital PDOS by

.. math::

  \rho^a_i(\varepsilon) = \sum_n |\langle\tilde p_i^a | \tilde \psi_n
  \rangle |^2 \delta(\varepsilon - \varepsilon_n) \approx \sum_n
  | \langle \phi_i^a | \psi_n \rangle |^2 \delta(\varepsilon - \varepsilon_n)

available from a GPAW calculator from the method ``get_orbital_ldos(a, spin=0,
angular='spdf', npts=201, width=None)``.

A specific projector function for the given atom can be specified by
an integer value for the keyword ``angular``. Specifying a string
value for ``angular``, being one or several of the letters s, p, d,
and f, will cause the code to sum over all bound state projectors with
the specified angular momentum.

The meaning of an integer valued ``angular`` keyword can be determined
by running::

  >>> from gpaw.utilities.dos import print_projectors
  >>> print_projectors('Au')

Note that the set of atomic partial waves do not form an orthonormal
basis, thus the properties of the introduction are not fulfilled.
This PDOS can however be used as a qualitative measure of the local
character of the DOS.

An example of how to obtain and plot the *d* band on atom number ``0`` of Au,
is shown below (see :download:`atomic_orbital_gs.py` and
:download:`atomic_orbital_pdos.py`):

.. literalinclude:: atomic_orbital_gs.py
.. literalinclude:: atomic_orbital_pdos.py
   :start-after: web-page

.. image:: au-ddos.png

Warning: You should always plot the PDOS before using the calculated
center and width to check that it is sensible. The very localized
functions used to project onto can sometimes cause an artificial
rising tail on the PDOS at high energies. If this happens, you should
try to project onto LCAO orbitals instead of projectors, as these have
a larger width. This however requires some calculation time, as the
LCAO projections are not determined in a standard grid
calculation. The projections onto the projector functions are always
present, hence using these takes no extra computational effort.

See also the new API for calculating a PDOS: :ref:`dos_calculator_api`.


-----------------
Wigner-Seitz LDOS
-----------------

(Note: this is currently only implemented for Gamma point calculations, ie. with no k-points.)

For the Wigner-Seitz LDOS, the eigenstates are projected onto the function

.. math::

  \theta^a(r) = \begin{cases}
  1 & \text{if for all } a' \neq a: |r - R^a| < | r - R^{a'}\\
  0 & \text{otherwise}
  \end{cases}

This defines an LDOS:

.. math::

  \rho^a(\varepsilon) = \sum_n |\langle \theta^a| \psi_n \rangle|^2
  \delta(\varepsilon - \varepsilon_n)

Introducing the PAW formalism shows that the weights can be calculated by

.. math::

   |\langle \theta^a| \psi_n \rangle|^2 = |\langle \theta^a| \tilde
   \psi_n \rangle|^2 + \sum_{ij} P^{a*}_{ni} \Delta S^a_{ij} P^a_{nj},

This property can be accessed by ``calc.get_wigner_seitz_ldos(a,
spin=0, npts=201, width=None)``.  It represents a local probe of the
density of states at atom `a`. Summing over all atomic sites
reproduces the total DOS (more efficiently computed using
``calc.get_dos``). Integrating over energy gives the number of
electrons contained in the region ascribed to atom `a` (more
efficiently computed using ``calc.get_wigner_seitz_densities(spin)``.
Notice that the domain ascribed to each atom is deduced purely on a
geometric criterion. A more advanced scheme for assigning the charge
density to atoms is the :ref:`bader analysis` algorithm (all though the
Wigner-Seitz approach is faster).


---------------------
PDOS on LCAO orbitals
---------------------

DOS can be also be projected onto the LCAO basis functions.
A subspace of the atomic orbitals is required as an input
onto which one wants the projected density of states. For
example, if the p orbitals of a particular atom in have the
indices 41, 42 and 43, and the PDOS is required on the subpspace
of these three orbital then an array ``[41, 42, 43]`` has to be given
as an input for the PDOS calculation.

An example and with explanation is provided below.

LCAO PDOS (see :git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/lcaodos_gs.py` and
:git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/lcaodos_plt.py`):

.. literalinclude:: lcaodos_plt.py
   :end-before: things

Few comments about the above script.
There are 51 basis functions in the calculations and the total
density of state (DOS) is calculated by projecting the DOS on
all the orbitals.

The projected density of state (PDOS) is calculated for other
orbitals as well, for example, s, p and d orbitals of the metal
atom and s and p orbitals for the chalcogen atoms. In the subspace
of orbitals the basis localized part of the basis functions is not
taken into account and only the confined orbital part (larger rc)
is chosen.

There is a smarter way of getting the above orbitals in an automated
way but it will come later.

.. image:: lcaodos.png

Last part of :git:`~doc/tutorialsexercises/electronic/dos/lcaodos_plt.py` script:

.. literalinclude:: lcaodos_plt.py
   :start-after: things


.. _dos_calculator_api:

------------------
DOS-calculator API
------------------

.. module:: gpaw.dos

Same example as above using the :class:`gpaw.dos.DOSCalculator` and its
:meth:`~gpaw.dos.DOSCalculator.raw_pdos` method:

.. literalinclude:: atomic_orbital_pdos2.py

One can also do this from the :ref:`command line <cli>`::

    $ gpaw dos au.gpw -a 0-d -p

.. autoclass:: gpaw.dos.DOSCalculator
    :members:
